Major Events of Modern Indian History

Major Events of Modern Indian History

Battle of Plassey, 23 June 1757:

Victory for the British East India Company in the Battle of Plassey was the start of nearly two centuries of British rule in India. For an event with such momentous consequences, it was a surprisingly unimpressive military encounter, the defeat of the Nawab of Bengal owing much to betrayal.

The First Anglo-Mysore War (1767–69):

Hyder Ali enjoyed some measure of success against the British, almost capturing Madras. The war ended with the Treaty of Madras.

The Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780–84):

Witnessed bloodier battles with fortunes fluctuating between the contesting powers. This war saw the rise of Sir Eyre Coote, the British commander who defeated Hyder Ali at the Battle of Porto Novo and Arni. Tipu continued the war following his father's death. Finally, the war ended with the signing of a treaty on 11 March 1784, the Treaty of Mangalore, which restored the status quo ante bellum.

The Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790–92):

Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore and an ally of France, invaded the nearby state of Travancore in 1789 which was a British ally. British forces were commanded by Governor-General Cornwallis himself. The resultant war lasted three years and was a resounding defeat for Mysore. The war ended after the 1792 Siege of Seringapatam and the signing of the Treaty of Seringapatam, according to which Tipu had to surrender half of his kingdom to the British East India Company and its allies.

The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1798–99):

Saw the death of Tipu Sultan and further reductions in Mysorean territory. The British won a decisive victory at the Siege of Seringapatam (1799). Tipu was killed during the defence of the city.

The Peshwa System of the Maratha Empire:

Peshwa was originally known as mukhya pradhan and headed the advisory council of king Shivaji.

Balaji Vishwanath (1713-1721) was the first Peshwa appointed to assist young shahu to consolidate his empire.

Baji Rao I (1721-1740) was the most powerful Peshwa. Nana Sahib was the adopted son of the last Peshwa Baji Rao II.

The First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–1782):

It was the first of three Anglo-Maratha Wars fought between the British East India Company and Maratha Empire in India. The war began with the Treaty of Surat (1775) and ended with the Treaty of Salbai (1782). This conflict spread between Surat and Pune saw British defeat and restoration of positions of both the parties before the war.

The Second Anglo Maratha War (1802-1805):

In October 1802, in the context of the second Anglo Maratha war, the combined armies of Peshwa Baji Rao II and Scindia were defeated by Yashwantrao Holkar, ruler of Indore, at the Battle of Poona. Baji Rao II fled to British protection, and in December the same year concluded the Treaty of Bassein (1802) with the British East India Company, ceding territory for the maintenance of a subsidiary force and agreeing to a treaty with no other power. The treaty would become the "death knell of the Maratha Empire".

The Third Anglo-Maratha War / the Pindaris war (1817–1819):

It was the final and decisive conflict between the British East India Company and the Maratha Empire in India. The English troops were led by Governor General Hastings, supported by a force under General Thomas Hislop.

The First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846):

It was fought between the Sikh Empire and the British East India Company in 1845 and 1846 in and around the Ferozepur district of Punjab. It resulted in defeat and partial subjugation of the Sikh kingdom and cession of Jammu and Kashmir as a separate princely state under British suzerainty. The Treaty of Lahore (1846) and the Treaty of Amritsar (1846) were the peace treaties marking the end of the First Anglo-Sikh War. 

The Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-1849):

It was a military conflict between the Sikh Empire and the British East India Company that took place in 1848 and 1849. It resulted in the fall of the Sikh Empire, and the annexation of the Punjab and what subsequently became the North-West Frontier Province, by the East India Company.

Regulating Act, 1773:

Brought the Dual Government of Bengal to an end. Designated the Governor of Bengal as the Governor General of Bengal. The first such Governor General was lord Warren Hastings. It provided for the establishment of a Supreme Court in Calcutta (1774).

Charter Act, 1813:

It abolished the trade Monopoly of the company in India i.e., the Indian trade was thrown open to all British merchants. It allowed the Christian missionaries to come to India for the purpose of spreading Christianity and it provided for the spread of Western education among the Indian people.

Charter Act, 1833:

It made the Governor General of Bengal as the Governor General of India and vested in him all civil and military powers. Lord William Bentinck was the first Governor General of India. It ended the activities of East India company as a commercial body which became purely an administrative body.

Charter Act, 1853:

It introduced an open competition system of selection and recruitment of civil servants. The civil service exams were thus thrown open to all Indians as well.

Government of India Act, 1858:

This Act was enacted in the wake of the revolt of 1857. This Act abolished the East India Company and transferred all the powers to the British crown. It changed the designation of the governor general of India to that of the viceroy of India. Lord Canning was the first viceroy of India. It created a new office Secretary of State for India, from the members of the British Cabinet.

Indian Councils Act, 1861:

The Indian councils Act 1861 was an act of the parliament of the United Kingdom that transformed India's executive council to function as a cabinet run on the portfolio system.

Morley Minto Reforms, 1909:

Indian Councils Act of 1909 is also known as the Morley Minto Reforms. Lord Morley was the then secretary of state for India and Lord Minto was the then viceroy of India. This act introduced a system of communal representation for Muslims by accepting the concept of separate electorate. Under this the Muslim members were to be elected only by Muslim voters. Thus, the act legalized communalism and Lord Minto came to be known as the Father of the Communal Electorate in India.

Montagu Declaration, 1917:

“Increasing association of Indians in every branch of administration, and the Gradual development of self governing Institutions with a view to the progressive realization of responsible governments in India as an Integral part of the British Empire” was the aim of this declaration.

Government of India Act, 1919:

The act was based on the recommendations of a report by Edwin Montagu, the then Secretary of State for India, and Lord Chelmsford, India’s Viceroy between 1916 and 1921. Hence the constitutional reforms set forth by this act are known as Montagu-Chelmsford reforms.

Dyarchy was introduced, i.e., there were two classes of administrators – Executive councillors and ministers.

The subjects were divided into two lists – reserved and transferred.

Introduced bicameralism and direct election in India. Thus, the Indian legislative council was replaced by a bicameral legislature consisting of an upper house (council of States) and lower house (council of assembly).

Simon Commission, 1928:

Constituted under John Simon, to review the political situation in India and to introduce further reforms and extension of parliamentary democracy. Indian leaders opposed the commission, as there were no Indians in it. Congress turned the boycott into a movement. Simon and his colleagues landed in Bombay on Feb.3, 1928, and were greeted with hartals and black-flag demonstrations. The Government used brutal repression and police attacks to break the popular opposition. At Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was severely beaten in a lathi-charge. He succumbed to his injuries on Nov. 17, 1928.

The Nehru Report, 1928:

After boycotting the Simon commission, all political parties constituted a committee under the chairmanship of Motilal Nehru to evolve and determine the principles of a constitution for India. It remains memorable as the first major Indian effort to draft a constitutional framework for India, complete with lists of Central and Provincial subjects and fundamental rights. It suggested dominion status for the country.

Government of India Act, 1935:

Government of India Act 1935 was passed by the British Parliament in August 1935. With 321 sections and 10 schedules, this was the longest act passed by the British Parliament so far. It provided for the establishment of a Federation of India.

The Act divided the powers between the centre and the units in terms of three lists - federalist list, provincial list and concurrent list.

It abolished dyarchy in the provinces and introduced provincial autonomy in its place.

The Partition of Bengal, 16 October, 1905:

By Lord Curzon on Oct 16, 1905, through a royal Proclamation, reducing the old province of Bengal in size by creating East Bengal and Assam out of the rest of Bengal. The objective was to set up a communal gulf between Hindus and Muslims.

Rabindranath Tagore composed the national song ‘Amar sonar Bangla’ for the occasion which was sung by people everywhere. This song was adopted as national anthem by Bangladesh in 1971 after liberation from Pakistan.

Partition of Bengal was cancelled (1911); capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi (1911).

Rowlatt Act, 1919:

This gave unbridled powers to the govt. to arrest and imprison suspects without trial for two years maximum. Caused a wave of anger in all sections.

People were agitated over the arrest of Dr. Kitchlu and Dr. Satyapal on April 10, 1919.

General O’ Dyer fired at people who assembled in the Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar.As a result hundreds of men, women and children were killed and thousands injured.

Rabindranath Tagore returned his Knighthood in protest. Sir Shankaran Nair resigned from Viceroy’s Executive Council after this.

On March 13, 1940, Sardar Udham Singh killed O’ Dyer when the latter was addressing a meeting in Caxton Hall, London.

The Swaraj Party, 1923:

Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das and N.C. Kelkar (called Pro-changers) demanded that the nationalists should end the boycott of the legislative councils, enter them and expose them.

The pro-changers formed the Swaraj party on Jan.1, 1923, contested the elections and embarrassed the government by opposing its measures.

In the 1923 elections, the Swarajists got a majority in Bengal and Central Province.

The Lahore Session, 1929:

On Dec.19, 1929, under the President ship of J.L.Nehru, the INC, at its Lahore session, declared Poorna Swaraj (Complete Independence) as its ultimate goal.

On Dec 31, 1929, the newly adopted tricolour flag was unfurled and Jan 26, 1930 was fixed as the First Independence Day, which was to be celebrated every year.

First Round Table Conference, 1930:

It was the first conference arranged between the British and Indians as equals. It was held on Nov.12, 1930 in London to discuss the Simon commission report. It was boycotted by INC. Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, Liberals and some others were there.

Gandhi Irwin Pact, 1931:

Moderate statesmen Sapru, Jaikar and Srinivas Shastri initiated efforts to break the ice between Gandhiji and the government. The two (Gandhi and Irwin) signed a pact March 5, 1931.

In this the INC called off the civil disobedience movement and agreed to join the second round table conference.

The government on its part released the political prisoner and conceded the right to make salt for consumption of villages along the coast.

The Karachi session of 1931 endorsed the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. The Karachi session is also memorable for its resolution on Fundamental Rights and the National Economic Program.

Second Round Table Conference, 1931:

Gandhiji represented the INC and went to London to meet the British PM. Ramsay Macdonald. The session was soon deadlocked on the minorities issue and this time separate electorates were demanded not only by Muslims but also by Depressed Classes, Indian Christians and Anglo-Indians.

MacDonald ended the session with an address which announced the creation of two new Muslim majority provinces, North West Frontier Province and Sindh, the dangerous prospect of a unilateral British Communal Award if the Indians failed to agree among themselves.

On Gandhi's arrival in Bombay, the Congress Working Committee decided to resume the Civil Disobedience Movement. In 1932, INC was declared an illegal organization and all its leaders were arrested. Gandhiji was sent to Yerwada jail in Poona.

The Communal Award, 16 August, 1932:

Envisaged representation of Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo Indians, women and even Backward classes.

Gandhiji, who was in Yerwada jail (Poona) at that time, started a fast unto death against it.

After the announcement of the communal award and subsequent fast of Gandhiji, mass meetings took place almost everywhere. Political leaders like Madan Mohan Malviya, B.R. Ambedkar and M.C. Rajah became active.

Eventually the Poona pact was reached and Gandhiji broke his fast on the sixth day (Sept 25, 1932).

In this, the idea of separate electorate for the depressed classes was abandoned, but seats reserved to them in the provincial legislature were increased. Thus, the Poona pact agreed upon a joint electorate for upper and lower castes.

Third Round Table Conference, 1932:

Proved fruitless as most of the national leaders were in prison. The discussions led to the passing of the Government of India Act, 1935.

August Offer, 8 August, 1940:

It offered (i) Dominion status in the unspecified future; (ii) post-war body to enact the constitution; (iii) to expand the Governor-General’s Executive Council to give full weightage to minority opinion.

For the first time, the right of Indians to frame their own constitution was acknowledged.

Cripps Mission, 1942:

In Dec. 1941, Japan entered World War — II and advanced towards Indian borders. By March 7, 1942, Rangoon fell and Japan occupied the entire SE Asia.

The British govt. with a view to get cooperation from Indians sent Sir Stafford Cripps, leader of the House of Commons to settle terms with the India leaders.

He offered a draft which contained the following proposals - Dominion status to be granted after the war and setting up a constitution-making body for India after the war whose members would be elected by the Provincial assemblies and nominated by the rulers in case of the Princely States.

It was rejected by the Congress as it didn’t want to rely upon future promises. Gandhiji termed it as a post dated cheque in a crashing bank.

Rajagopalachari Formula, 1944:

He proposed that a plebiscite should be held in contiguous districts of North West and East where Muslims were in absolute majority.

If the majority decides in favour of forming a separate sovereign state, such a decision could be accepted.

Jinnah objected as he wanted only Muslims of North West and East of India to vote in the plebiscite.

Shimla Conference, 1945:

The Wavell Plan was first presented at the Simla Conference in 1945. The Shimla Conference was convened in order to agree on the Wavell Plan for Indian self-government. The conference was a failure because the League and the Congress could not settle their differences.

Jinnah insisted that only League members could be the Muslim representatives in the Council, and opposed to the Congress nominating Muslim members. This was because Jinnah wanted the League to be the sole representative of Muslims in India. Congress would never agree to this demand. The Wavell Plan, thus, was dissolved with the failure of the conference. And with it the last chance to avoid partition.

After this, the war ended and a new Labour government was elected in Britain. This new government was intent on giving independence to India without much delay and sent the Cabinet Mission with that purpose.

The Wavell Plan, 1945:

The plan was that the Viceroy’s Executive Council should be so reconstituted that its members, except the Governor General and the Commander-in-Chief, were to be Indians (from various parties). Simla conference was convened in this regard, but was rejected by Jinnah.

The Cabinet Mission Plan, 1946:

The struggle for freedom entered a decisive phase in the year 1945-46. The new Labour Party PM, Lord Attlee, made a declaration on March 15, 1946, that British Cabinet Mission (comprising Lord Pethick Lawrence as Chairman, Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander) will visit India.

On May 16, 1946, the mission put forward its proposals - Rejected the demand for separate Pakistan and instead a federal union consisting of Princely States was suggested. There were to be three-groups of Provinces: Group A with six Hindu majority provinces (Bombay, United Province, Bihar, Central Province, Orissa, Madras); Group B with three Muslim majority provinces (Sind, NWFP, Punjab) and Group C (Assam and Bengal).

Both Congress and Muslim League accepted it.

Interim Government, 2 September, 1946:

The elections of the Constituent Assembly were held in July 1946. The Congress got 209 of the ‘total 273 seats.

Based on the Cabinet Mission Plan, an interim government consisting of Congress nominees was formed on Sept. 2, 1946. J.L. Nehru was its Vice-President and the Governor-General remained as its President. Muslim League did not join it initially but finally Wavell succeeded in having five members of the League join the government.

The constituent assembly met on Dec 9, 1946 and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as its president.

The Direct Action Resolution:

Jinnah was alarmed at the results-of the elections because the Muslim League was in danger of being totally eclipsed in the constituent assembly.

Therefore, Muslim League withdraw its acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan on July 29, 1946.

It passed a ‘Direct action’ resolution, which condemned both the British Government and the Congress (Aug 16, 1946).

Mountbatten Plan, 3 June, 1947:

On June 3, 1947, Lord Mountbatten put forward his plan which outlined the steps for the solution of India’s political problem. The outlines of the Plan were - India to be divided into India and Pakistan. Bengal and Punjab will be partitioned and a referendum in NEFP and Sylhet district of Assam would be held. The Princely states would enjoy the liberty to join either India or Pakistan or even remain independent. Aug. 15, 1947 was the date, fixed for handing over power to India and Pakistan.

The Partition and Independence:

Two Commissions were appointed by the British Government with Sir Cyril Redcliffe as chairman of both to see through the partition and fix the international boundaries of the two nations-to-be.

At the time of independence, there were 562 small and big Princely states in India.

Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, the first home minister, used iron hand in this regard. By August 15, 1947, all the States, with a few exceptions like Kashmir, Hyderabad and Junagadh had signed the Instrument of Accession. Goa was with the Portuguese and Pondicherry with the French.